Homophobia:

Homophobia (from Greek homós: one and the same; phóbos: fear, phobia) is a term used to describe irrational fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against homosexuals.^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] It can also mean "irrational fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against homosexuality or homosexuals".^[7] Homophobic is the adjective form of this term used to describe the qualities of these characteristics while homophobe is the noun form given as a title to individuals with homophobic characteristics.

The usage of the word homophobia in its modern form is controversial as it may be used pejoratively against those with differing debatable value positions.^[8]

Etymology and usage

Coinage

Psychologist George Weinberg introduced the first scholarly use of the concept homophobia in his 1972 book Society and the Healthy Homosexual,^[9] published one year before the American Psychiatric Association voted to remove homosexuality from its list of mental disorders.^[10] Weinberg's "term became an important tool for gay and lesbian activists, advocates, and their allies."^[11] He describes the concept as:

Conceptualizing prejudice against gay and lesbian people as a social problem worthy of scholarly attention was not a new concept, but Weinberg was the first to give the problem a name.^[11]

The construction of the word is comparable to xenophobia, a much older term referring to individual or cultural hostility to foreigners or outsiders. However it fails to make sense etymologically, as the Greek 'homo' means 'the same', so, literally, 'homophobia' means a fear of things that are the same.^[11] The word homophobia was also used early in the twentieth century, albeit rarely. It then had the meaning of "fear or hatred of the male sex or humankind." In this use, the word derived from the Latin root homo (Latin, "man" or "human") with the Greek ending -phobia ("fear").^[12]

Despite its general shortcomings etymologically, the word can be used to describe the fear of a heterosexual that they will be approached romantically by someone of the same sex. It also can describe the apparently fear-based reactions of recoiling from unintentional close contact with another male or of being in close proximity to other males in certain situations such as while in the restroom. These are typically fear-based reactions, but the fear is usually that of the societal stigma of being labelled homosexual. However a disinterested third party might view these reactions and simply conclude that the person displaying the reaction is afraid of others of the same sex, hence, homophobic.

The word first appeared in print in an article written for the American Screw tabloid, May 23, 1969 edition, using the word to refer to straight men's fear that others might think they are gay.^[11] A possible etymological precursor was homoerotophobia, coined by Wainwright Churchill in Homosexual Behavior Among Males in 1967.

The first time it was formally used in its modern sense in the press was not until 1981 when The Times reported a General Synod vote where they refused to condemn homosexuality.^[13]

Similar terms

Similar terms such as heterosexism have been proposed as alternatives that are more morphologically parallel, and which do not have the association with phobia. Heterosexism refers to the presumption that all people are heterosexual and/or to the privileging of heterosexuality over homosexuality.

Some recent psychological literature suggested the term homonegativity, reflecting the perspective that behaviors and thoughts that are frequently considered homophobic are not fear-based but instead reflect a disapproval of homosexuality.^[14]^[15]

Seeking to avoid both the focus on individual psychology of "homophobia" and the focus on collective cultural factors of "heterosexism," psychologist Gregory M. Herek has proposed the term "sexual prejudice" as referring to "all negative attitudes based on sexual orientation, whether the target is homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual."^[16]

The term homophobia is often used collectively with other terms denoting bigotry and discrimination. In a 1998 address, Coretta Scott King asserted that, "Homophobia is like racism and anti-Semitism and other forms of bigotry in that it seeks to dehumanize a large group of people, to deny their humanity, their dignity and personhood." Likewise, George Yancey, writing in Christian Ethics Today associates "sexism, racism, class distinctions, or homophobia" with one another and views them all as "varieties of discrimination," although he argues that they are not identical.^[17]

Critics of the term

Some researchers within the field have preferred other terms to "homophobia." For example, Gregory M. Herek, a researcher at the University of California, Davis, compared several related terms: "homophobia," "heterosexism," and "sexual prejudice." In preferring the latter term, he noted that "homophobia" was "probably more widely used and more often criticized," and observed that. "Its critics note that homophobia implicitly suggests that antigay attitudes are best understood as an irrational fear and that they represent a form of individual psychopathology rather than a socially reinforced prejudice." He preferred "sexual prejudice" as being descriptive and free of presumptions about motivations, and lacking in value judgments as to the irrationality or immorality of those so labeled.^[18]

In 1980 Hudson and Ricketts proposed the term "homonegativity," arguing that "homophobia" was unscientific in its presumption of motivation.^[19]

In 1993, behavioral scientists William O'Donohue and Christine Caselles concluded that the usage of the term "as it is usually used, makes an illegitimately pejorative evaluation of certain open and debatable value positions, much like the former disease construct of homosexuality" itself, arguing that both homophobia and homosexuality are social constructions.^[20]

The National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality, an organization affiliated with the ex-gay movement, describes the term homophobia as being "often used inaccurately to describe any person who objects to homosexual behavior on either moral, psychological or medical grounds." They claim that, "Technically, however, the terms actually denotes a person who has a phobia—or irrational fear—of homosexuality. Principled disagreement, therefore, cannot be labeled 'homophobia.'"^[21]

Classification of homophobia

Homophobia manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others.^[22] There were also ideas to classify homophobia, racism, and sexism as an intolerant personality disorder.^[23]

internalized homophobia

internalized homophobia (or egodystonic homophobia) refers to homophobia as a prejudice carried by individuals against homosexual manifestations in themselves and others.^{[citation needed]} It causes severe discomfort with or disapproval of one's own sexual orientation. internalized homophobia is thus a form of cognitive dissonance; the individual cannot reconcile the conflicting conscious or unconscious sexual desires with values and tenets gained from society, religion or upbringing.

Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires.^[25] In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong sexual and emotional desires. This discordance often causes clinical depression, and the unusually high suicide rate among gay teenagers (up to 30 percent of non-heterosexual youth attempt suicide) has been attributed to this phenomenon.^[26]

The label of internalized homophobia is sometimes applied to conscious or unconscious behaviors which an observer feels the need to promote or conform to the expectations of heteronormativity or heterosexism. This can include extreme repression and denial coupled with forced outward displays of heteronormative behavior for the purpose of appearing or attempting to feel "normal" or "accepted". This might also include less overt behavior like making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles. Some also apply this label to LGBT persons who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find civil unions an acceptable alternative to same-sex marriage. Whether this is a tactical judgement call or the result of some kind of internal prejudice (whether in a cause-and-effect fashion, or definitionally) is a matter of some debate.

Some argue that some or most homophobes are repressed homosexuals, but this argument is somewhat controversial. In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual men (half claimed to be homophobic by experience and self-reported orientation) at the University of Georgia found that men who were found to be homophobic (as measured by the Index of Homophobia)^[27] were considerably more likely to experience more erectile responses when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men. ^[28]

Fear of being identified as gay (social homophobia)

Theorists including Calvin Thomas and Judith Butler have suggested that homophobia can be rooted in an individual's fear of being identified as gay.^{[citation needed]} At least one study indicates that homophobia in men is correlated with insecurity about masculinity.^[29] In addition, a study in 1996 showed that some homophobic males are sexually stimulated by "homosexual stimuli." ^[30]

They have argued that a person who expresses homophobic thoughts and feelings does so not only to communicate their beliefs about the class of gay people, but also to distance themselves from this class and its social status. Thus, by distancing themselves from gay people, they are reaffirming their role as a heterosexual in a heteronormative culture, thereby attempting to prevent themselves from being labelled and treated as a gay person.

This interpretation alludes to the idea that a person may posit violent opposition to "the Other" as a means of establishing their own identity as part of the majority and thus gaining social validation. This concept is also recurrent in interpretations of racism and xenophobia.

Nancy J. Chodorow states that homophobia can be viewed as a method of protection of male masculinity.^[31]

Various psychoanalytic theories explain homophobia as a threat to an individual's own same-sex impulses, whether those impulses are imminent or merely hypothetical. This threat causes repression, denial or reaction formation.^[32]

Homophobia as leading to a climate of prejudice

Sexist beliefs

Some gender theorists interpret the fact that male-to-male relationships often incite a stronger reaction in a homophobic person than female-to-female (lesbian) as meaning that the homophobic person feels threatened by the perceived subversion of the gender paradigm in male-to-male sexual activity. According to such theorists as D.A. Miller, male heterosexuality is defined not only by the desire for women but also, and more importantly, by the denial of desire for men. Therefore, expressions of homophobia serve as a means of limiting those who they view as displaced in heteronormativity, and also of accenting their male nature, by isolating the threatening concept of their own potential femininity in gay men, and consequently belittling them, as not real males. They regard the reason male homosexuality is treated worse compared to female homosexuality as sexist in its underlying belief that men are superior to women and therefore for a man to "replace" a woman during intercourse with another man is his own subjection to (non-male) inferiority.

However, this view would imply that only the receptive male partner in homosexual acts would be thought of as "offensive", which is the case in many cultures. Miller's specific claim that male heterosexuality does not require "desire for women" would seem to preclude the possibility of asexuality or bisexuality. Nor is it clear why male heterosexuals would "need" or even fear gay people in order to affirm maleness – unless their sexuality was already experienced as threatened by some other cause.

Other theories of the difference in the reactions of homophobes to male-male versus female-female homosexual relationships simply have to do with a common sexual desire. A heterosexual man desires women. For a woman to desire women is thus more understandable than for a man to desire men, as a heterosexual man and homosexual woman share the same desire for women, but a heterosexual man cannot understand or identify with the attraction of one man to another man. Similarly, homosexual men desire men, and thus for a man to desire men is understandable to a woman who has the same desires. Even more simply, same-sex relationships can be more tolerable to members of the opposite sex simply because of the innate attraction of a heterosexual to the opposite sex, and the accompanying modification of emotion.

Lastly, a common sexual fantasy of heterosexual males, rooted in a desire to be virile and attractive to women, and also rooted in the traditional view of women as objects or possessions, is to engage in sex with multiple women. Thus a lesbian relationship can be seen as an opportunity to indulge in such a fantasy, regardless of any conscious realization of its implausibility.

Distribution/frequency of attitudes in the UK and US

Disapproval of homosexuality and of gay people is not evenly distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced according to age, ethnicity, race, sex, social class, education and religious status. According to UK HIV/AIDS charity AVERT, low educational level and social status, lack of homosexual feelings or experiences, religious views, and lack of interaction with gay people are strongly associated with such views.^[33]

One study of white adolescent males conducted at the University of Cincinnati by Janet Baker has been used to argue that negative feelings towards gay people are also associated with other discriminatory behaviors. The study claims to have found that hatred of gay people, anti-Semitism and racism are "likely companions",^[34] suggesting it is an abuse of power. A study performed in 2007 in the UK for the charity Stonewall reports that 90 percent of the population support the ban on discrimination against gays and lesbians.^[35]

Social institutions can perpetuate homophobic attitudes. Such institutional sources in the black community include:

Professional sports in many countries involves homophobic expressions by star athletes and by fans. Examples in the United States include:

The anxiety of non-gay individuals that others may identify them as gay, particularly among adolescents whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is factored in part on not being seen as gay,^[46]^[47] has also been identified by Michael Kimmel as an example of homophobia.^[48] The taunting of boys seen as eccentric (and who are not usually gay) is claimed to be endemic in rural and suburban American schools, and has been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence (such as a spate of fatal school shootings) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their masculinity.^[49]

Combatting homophobia

In addition to public expression, legislation has been designed, controversially, to oppose homophobia, as in hate speech, hate crime, and laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.

Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral and goes above and beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme right-wing conservatives and fundamentalist religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly.^[52] Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular claimed:

References

^ Anti-Defamation League on the Westboro Baptist Church
^ Anti-homosexual quotes from WBC on ADL's website.
^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition.
^ webster.com (2008). Retrieved on 2008-01-29.
^ homophobial Dictonary.com. Dictonary.com (2008). Retrieved on 2008-01-29.
^ aol.com. aol.com (2008). Retrieved on 2008-01-29.
^ Merriam-Webster Online and 11th Collegiate Dictionary, 2005, American Heritage Dictionary.
^ William O'Donohue and Christine E. Caselles, "Homophobia: Conceptual, definitional, and value issues", Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment (2005).
^ Weinberg, George (1972). Society and the Healthy Homosexual. New York: St. Martin's. ISBN 0901072168.
^ Freedman, Alfred M (2000-09-01), “Recalling APA's Historic Step”, APA News, <http://www.psych.org/pnews/00-09-01/recalling.html>. Retrieved on 2007-05-04
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Herek, Gregory M. (April 2004). "Beyond "Homophobia": Thinking About Sexual Prejudice and Stigma in the Twenty-First Century". Sexuality Research & Social Policy 1 (2): 2–24. doi:10.1525/srsp.2004.1.2.6.
^ Oxford Shorter English Dictionary, 2002
^ Clifford Longley. "Homosexuality best seen as a handicap, Dr Runcie says", The Times, 1981-2-28. "Let us recognize where the problem lies - in the dislike and distaste felt by many heterosexuals for homosexuals, a problem we have come to call homophobia."
^ Homophobia | TEACH Project
^ Homophobia is a misnomer, according to a group of U.S. psychologists.
^ Herek, G. M. (1990). The context of anti-gay violence: Notes on cultural and psychological heterosexism. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5, 316-333
^ Is Homophobia The Same As Racism/Sexism? By George Yancey, Assistant Professor
^ Herek, Gregory M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9
^ Hudson, W. and Ricketts, W. (1980) A strategy for the measure of homophobia. Journal of Homosexuality, 5, 357–372.
^ O'Donohue, William and Christine Caselles (September 1993). Homophobia: Conceptual, definitional, and value issues. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 15 no. 3.
^ N.A.R.T.H.
^ The Riddle Homophobia Scale from Allies Committee website, Department of Student Life, Texas A&M University
^ Guindon, M.H., Green, A.G. & Hanna, F.J. (2003). Intolerance and Psychopathology: Toward a General Diagnosis for Racism, Sexism, and Homophobia. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73, 2, pp. 167–176.
^ Paula A. Treichler, AIDS, Homophobia, and Biomedical Discourse: An Epidemic of Signification, October, Vol. 43, AIDS: Cultural Analysis/Cultural Activism (Winter, 1987), pp. 31–70.
^ Adams, H.E., Wright, R.W. & Lohr, B.A. (1996). "Is Homophobia Associated With Homosexual Arousal?", Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, no. 3, pp. 440–445.
^ Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity — Discrimination and Conflicts from Planned Parenthood
^ Index of Homophobia: W. W. Hudson and W. A. Ricketts, 1980.
^ "Is John Janes' Homophobia Associated With Homosexual Arousal?" by Henry E. Adams, Lester W. Wright, Jr. and Bethany A. Lohr, University of Georgia (Athens), Department of Psychology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Vol. 105, No. 3, pp 440-445. Abstract at PubMed. Summarized in an American Psychological Association press release, August 1996: "New Study Links Homophobia with Homosexual Arousal".
^ Masculinity Challenged, Men Prefer War and SUVs
^ PsycNET - Display Record
^ Nancy J. Chodorow. Statement in a public forum on homophobia by The American Psychoanalytic Foundation, 1999
^ West, D.J. Homosexuality re-examined. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977. ISBN 0816608121
^ Prejudice & Attitudes to Gay Men & Lesbians
^ "Homophobia, racism likely companions, study shows," Jet, January 10, 1994
^ Majority support gay equality rights, poll finds. Guardian (2007-05-23).
^ After Elton: Because visibility matters, by Robert Urban, June 1, 2006 "Taking the Homophobia Out of Hip-Hop: A Progress Report" http://www.afterelton.com/archive/elton/music/2006/6/hiphop.html
^ "Beyond Beats and Rhymes" http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/hiphop/
^ "Issue Brief: Gender Violence and Homophobia" http://www.itvs.org/outreach/hiphop/resources/brief_gender.pdf
^ Black Churches' Attitudes Toward Gay Parishioners Is Discussed at Conference - New York Times
^ "Obama takes on the black community's homophobia" http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/01/25/obama-takes-on-the-black-_n_83234.html
^ black gay christian church and homosexuality OPERATION: REBIRTH
^ "Some hateful, radical ministers -- white evangelicals -- are acceptable" http://www.salon.com/opinion/greenwald/2008/02/28/hagee/index.html
^ "ABC repeatedly noted controversial comments by Obama's "allies," but has yet to report comments by McCain endorsers" http://mediamatters.org/items/200803140013
^ When Tradition and Taunts Collide: Gay Hockey Fans Criticize Garden - New York Times
^ "Love and Basketball: Homophobia in Sports" http://blackademics.org/2007/02/18/love-and-basketball-homophobia-in-sports/
^ Epstein, D. (1995). "Keeping them in their place: Hetero/sexist harassment, gender and the enforcement of heterosexuality." In J. Holland&L. Adkins (Eds.), Sex, sensibility and the gendered body. London: Macmillan.
^ Herek, G. (Ed.). (1998). Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men and bisexuals. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
^ Kimmel, M. (1994). Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame and silence in the construction of gender identity. In H. Brod & M. Kaufman (Eds.), Theorizing masculinities (pp. 119–141). Newbury Park, CA: Sage
^ Michael S. Kimmel and Matthew Mahler, "Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence: Random School Shootings", 1982–2001, State University of New York at Stony Brook, in American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 46 No. 10, June 2003 pp. 1439–1458
^ "Towards an international Day against Homophobia", April 10, 2004
^ "1st Annual International Day Against Homophobia to be Celebrated in over 40 Countries on May 17", May 12, 2005
^ Blumenfield, Warren J., "Homophobia: How we all pay the price" (1992).

Homophobia

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