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| Turkey |
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Other countries · Atlas Politics Portal |
Secularism in Turkey was introduced with the Turkish Constitution of 1924 and later the Atatürk's Reforms set the administrative and political requirements to create a modern, democratic, secular state aligned with the Kemalist ideology. After thirteen years of its introduction, laïcité was explicitly stated in the second article of the Turkish constitution on February 5, 1937. The current Turkish constitution neither recognizes an official religion nor promotes any. This includes Islam, which at least nominally more than 99% of its citizens subscribe to.[1] Turkey's "laïcité" does not call for a strict separation of religion and the state, but describes the state's stance as one of "active neutrality." Turkey's actions related with religion are carefully analyzed and evaluated through the Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı (English: Presidency of Religious Affairs). The duties of the Presidency of Religious Affairs are "to execute the works concerning the beliefs, worship, and ethics of Islam, enlighten the public about their religion, and administer the sacred worshipping places".[2]
Contents |
History
The history of secularism in Turkey extends to Tanzimat reforms of Ottoman Empire. The second peak in secularism occurred during the Second constitutional era. The current from is achieved by Atatürk's Reforms.
Ottoman Empire
- See also: Ottoman Caliphate and State and Religion (Ottoman Empire)
The establishing structure (Ruling institution of the Ottoman Empire) of the Ottoman empire (13th century) was an Islamic State in which the head of the Ottoman state was the Sultan. The social system was organized around millet. Millet structure allowed a great degree of religious, cultural and ethnic continuity to non-Muslim populations across the subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire and at the same time it permitted their incorporation into the Ottoman administrative, economic and political system.[3] The Ottoman-appointed governor collected taxes and provided security, while the local religious or cultural matters were left to the regional communities to decide. On the other hand, the sultans were Muslims and the laws that bound them were based on the Sharia, the body of Islamic law, as well as various cultural customs. The Sultan, beginning in 1516, was also a Caliph, the leader of all the Sunni Muslims in the world. By the turn of the 19th century the Ottoman ruling elite recognized the need to restructure the legislative, military and judiciary systems to cope with their new political rivals in Europe. When the millet system started to lose its efficiency due to the rise of nationalism within its borders, the Ottoman Empire explored new ways of governing its territory composed of diverse populations.
Sultan Selim III founded the first secular military schools by establishing the new military unit, Nizam-ı Cedid, as early as 1792. However the last century (19th century) of the Ottoman Empire had many far reaching reforms. These reforms peaked with the tanzimat which was the initial reform era of the Ottoman empire. After the tanzimat, rules, such as those relating to the equalized status of non-Muslim citizens, the establishment of a parliament, as well as the codification of the constitution of the empire and the rights of ottoman subjects were established. The First World War brought about the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the subsequent partitioning of the Ottoman Empire by the victorious Allies. Therefore, the Republic of Turkey was actually a nation-state built as a result of an empire lost.
Reforms of Republic
During the establishment of Republic, there were two sections of the elite group at the helm of the discussions for the future; which they had the firsthand experience of Ottoman Reforms which were implemented beginning from the last quarter of the 19th century. These were the Islamist reformists and Westerners.[3] They shared a similar goal, the modernization of the new state. There were many basic goals which were common to both the groups. The founder of the modern Turkish Republic Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's achievement was to amplify this common ground and put the country on a fast track of reforms which is now known as Atatürk's Reforms.
The first act was to give by will to the Turkish nation the right to exercise popular sovereignty via representative democracy. Prior to declaring the new Republic, the Turkish Grand National Assembly abolished the constitutional monarchy on November 1, 1922. The Turkish Grand National Assembly then moved to replace the extant Islamic law structure with the laws it had passed during the Turkish War of Independence, beginning in 1919. The modernization of the Law had already begun at the point that the project was undertaken in earnest. A milestone in this process was the passage of the Turkish Constitution of 1921. Upon the establishment of the Republic on October 29, 1923, the institution of the Caliphate remained, but the passage of a new constitution in 1924 effectively abolished this title held by the Ottoman Sultanate since 1517. With the negation of the Caliphate the final vestiges of Islamic Law are regarded as having disappeared from the Turkish landscape. The Caliphate's powers within Turkey were transferred to the National Assembly and the title has since been inactive. While very unlikely, the Turkish Republic does in theory still retain the right to reinstate the Caliphate, should it ever elect to do so.
Following quickly upon these developments, many social reforms were undertaken. Many of these reforms affected every aspect of Turkish life, moving to erase the legacy of dominance long held by religion and tradition. The Unification of education, installation of a secular education system, and the closure of many religious orders was happened on March 3, 1924. this extended to closure of religious convents and dervish lodges on November 30, 1925. These reforms included the extension to women of voting rights in 1931 and the right to elected office in December 5, 1934. The inclusion of reference to laïcité into the constitution was achieved by an amendment on February 5, 1937, is seen as the final act in the project of instituting complete separation between governmental and religious affairs in Turkey.
Constitutional principles
- See also: Constitution of Turkey
The Constitution asserts that Turkey is a secular and democratic republic, deriving its sovereignty from the people. The sovereignty rests with the Turkish Nation, who delegates its exercise to an elected unicameral parliament, the Turkish Grand National Assembly. Moreover, Article 4: declares the immovability the founding principles of the Republic defined in the first three Articles:
- "secularism, social equality, equality before law"
- "the Republican form of government"
- "the indivisibility of the Republic and of the Turkish Nation",
Constitution bans any proposals for the modification of these articles. Each of these concepts which were distributed in the three articles of the constitution can not be achieved without the other two concepts. The constitution requires a central administration which would lose its meaning (effectiveness, coverage, etc) if the system is not based on laïcité, social equality, and equality before law. Vice versa, if the Republic differentiate itself based on social, religious differences, administration can not be equal to the population when the administration is central. The system which tried to be established in the constitution sets out to found a unitary nation-state based on the principles of secular democracy.
Criticism
Critics[who?] argue that the Turkish state's support for and regulation of Sunni religious institutions – including mandatory religious education for children deemed by the state to be Muslims – amount to de facto violations of secularism. (This cooperation arose during the 1960s, as the result of an anti-leftist alliance between secular and religious conservatives.[citation needed]) Conversely, it is also argued[who?] that Turkish secularism unduly restricts individual religious freedom. Debate arises over the issue of to what degree religious observance ought to be restricted to the private sphere – most famously in connection with the issues of head-scarves and religious-based political parties (cf. Welfare Party, AKP). The issue of an independent Greek-orthodox seminary is also a matter of controversy in regard to Turkey's accession to the European Union.[citation needed]
Headscarf controversy
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Turkey today is now seeing an increase in religious identity by the people, as in most places.[citation needed] Women are now choosing to wear the headscarves to show their beliefs and identity of their religion. The headscarf is banned in state offices, schools and public universities. However the current government of the AKP party has now amended the constitution, to allow the headscarf to be worn. However, this has not been successful since the court has upheld the ban by its own governance without confirmation with the government. All of this controversial surrounding of the headscarf debate, shows the impact of the people living in Turkey. According to the Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation and some sources, around 60% of women wear the headscarf in Turkey.[4][5][6]
Responses of Turks asked what they associate with wearing the headscarf, May 2007:[7]
| Association | Percent |
|---|---|
| Being religious | 66% |
| Freedom | 38% |
| Respectability | 31% |
| Oppression | 26% |
| Fanaticism | 14% |
| A sign of backwardness | 12% |
| A sign of progress | 9% |
Many believe that the headscarf is for religious reasons, not for political movements.[citation needed] Turkey’s strong secularism has resulted in what have been perceived by some as strictures on the freedom of religion; for example, the headscarf has long been prohibited in public universities, and a constitutional amendment passed in February 2008 that permitted women to wear it on university campuses sparked considerable controversy. In addition, the armed forces have maintained a vigilant watch over Turkey’s political secularism, which they affirm to be a keystone among Turkey’s founding principles. The military has not left the maintenance of a secular political process to chance, however, and has intervened in politics on a number of occasions.[8]
Impact on society
- See also: Politics of Turkey
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The Turkish Constitution recognizes freedom of religion for individuals whereas the religious communities are placed under the protection of state, but the constitution explicitly states that they cannot become involved in the political process (by forming a religious party for instance) and no party can claim that it represents a form of religious belief. Nevertheless, religious sensibilities are generally represented through conservative parties.
In recent history, two parties have been ordered to close (Welfare Party (Turkish: Refah Partisi) in 1998 and Virtue Party (Turkish: Fazilet Partisi) in 2001) by the Constitutional Court for Islamist activities and attempts to "redefine the secular nature of the republic". The first party to be closed for suspected fundamentalist activities was the Progressive Republican Party on June 3, 1925.
The actual governing party in Turkey, the conservative Justice and Development Party (Turkish: Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi or AKP) has often been accused of following an Islamist agenda.
Issues relating to Turkey's secularism were discussed in the lead up to the 2007 presidential elections, in which the ruling party chose a candidate with Islamic connections, Abdullah Gül, for the first time in its secular republic. While some in Turkey have expressed concern that the nomination could represent a move away from Turkey's secularist traditions, including particularly Turkey's priority on equality between the sexes, others have suggested that the conservative party has effectively promoted modernization while reaching out to more traditional and religious elements in Turkish society.[9][10] On July 22, 2007 it was reported that the more religiously conservative ruling party won a larger than expected electoral victory in the parliamentary elections.[11]
Turkey's preservation and maintenance of its secular identity has been a profound issue and source of tension. Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has spoken out in favor of limited Islamism and against the active restrictions,[citation needed] instituted by Kemal Atatürk on wearing the Islamic-style head scarves in government offices and schools. The Republic Protests (Turkish: Cumhuriyet Mitingleri) were a series of peaceful mass rallies that took place in Turkey in the spring of 2007 in support of the Kemalist ideals of state secularism.[12]
The constitutional rule that prohibits discrimination on religious grounds is taken very seriously. Turkey, as a secular country, prohibits by law the wearing of religious headcover and theo-political symbolic garments for both genders in government buildings, schools, and universities;[13] a law upheld by the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights as "legitimate" on November 10, 2005 in Leyla Şahin v. Turkey.[14]
The strict application of secularism in Turkey has been credited for enabling women to have access to greater opportunities, compared to countries with a greater influence of religion in public affairs, in matters of education, employment, wealth as well as political, social and cultural freedoms.[15]
Also paradoxical with the Turkish secularism is the fact that Identity document cards of Turkish citizens include the specification of the card holder's religion.[16] This declaration was perceived for some as representing a form of the state's surveillance over its citizens' religious choices. However, in the application there is no case brought forward involving the identity document being a part in any discussions.
The mainstream Hanafite school of Sunni Islam is largely organized by the state, through the Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı (Religious Affairs Directorate), which supervises all mosques and imams who work in them. It appoints imams, who are classified as civil servants.[17] Groups that have expressed dissatisfaction with this situation include a variety of extra-governmental Sunni / Hanafi groups (such as the Nurci movement), whose interpretation of Islam tends to be more activist; and the non-Sunni Alevilik, whose members tend to resent supporting the Sunni establishment with their tax monies (the Turkish state does not subsidize Alevi religious activities).
See also
References
- ^ "Turkey". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (US) (2008-07-24). Retrieved on 2008-08-01.
- ^ Basic Principles, Aims And Objectives, Presidency of Religious Affairs
- ^ a b Secularism: The Turkish Experience
- ^ Lamb, Christina (2007-04-23). "Head scarves to topple secular Turkey?".
- ^ "Headscarf war threatens to split Turkey", Times Online (2007-05-06).
- ^ Clark-Flory, Tracy (2007-04-23). "Head scarves to topple secular Turkey?", Salon.com. Retrieved on 2008-08-04.
- ^ Rheault, Magali (2008-02-08). "Headscarves and Secularism: Voices From Turkish Women". The Gallup Organization. Retrieved on 2008-08-22.
- ^ Turkey, Britannica Online Encyclopedia
- ^ Tavernise, Sabrina. "In Turkey, a Sign of a Rising Islamic Middle Class," New York Times, April 25, 2007.
- ^ "Turkey 'must have secular leader'", BBC News, April 24, 2007.
- ^ Tavernise, Sabrina. "Ruling Party in Turkey Wins Broad Victory," New York Times, July 23, 2007.
- ^ "Secular rally targets Turkish PM", BBC News (2007-04-14). Retrieved on 2008-08-05.
- ^ "The Islamic veil across Europe", BBC News (2006-11-17). Retrieved on 2006-12-13.
- ^ "Leyla Şahin v. Turkey". European Court of Human Rights (2005-11-10). Retrieved on 2008-08-21.
- ^ Çarkoğlu, Ali (2004). Religion and Politics in Turkey. UK: Routledge. ISBN 0-4153-4831-5.
- ^ State ID cards, General Directorate of Population and Citizenship Matters, Ministry of Internal Affairs (Turkish)
- ^ Fox, Jonathan. World Survey of Religion and the State, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 9780521707589, page 247
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